The/at fall/nn of/in Rome/np ,/, the/at discovery/nn of/in precious/jj metals/nns ,/, and/cc the/at Protestant/jj-tl Reformation/nn-tl were/bed all/abn links/nns and/cc could/md only/rb be/be explained/vbn and/cc understood/vbn by/in comprehending/vbg the/at links/nns that/wps preceded/vbd and/cc those/dts that/wps followed/vbd ./.


	Often/rb the/at historian/nn must/md consider/vb the/at use/nn of/in intuition/nn or/cc instinct/nn by/in those/dts individuals/nns or/cc nations/nns which/wdt he/pps is/bez studying/vbg ./.
Unconsciously/rb ,/, governments/nns or/cc races/nns or/cc institutions/nns may/md enter/vb into/in some/dti undertaking/nn without/in fully/rb realizing/vbg why/wrb they/ppss are/ber doing/vbg so/rb ./.
They/ppss react/vb in/in obedience/nn to/in an/at instinct/nn or/cc urge/nn which/wdt has/hvz itself/ppl been/ben impelled/vbn by/in natural/jj law/nn ./.
A/at court/nn may/md strike/vb down/rp a/at law/nn on/in the/at basis/nn of/in an/at intuitive/jj feeling/nn that/cs the/at law/nn is/bez inimical/jj to/in the/at numerical/jj majority/nn ./.
A/at nation/nn may/md go/vb to/in war/nn on/in some/dti trifling/vbg pretext/nn ,/, when/wrb in/in reality/nn it/pps may/md have/hv been/ben guided/vbn by/in an/at unconscious/jj instinct/nn that/cs its/pp$ very/ap life/nn was/bedz at/in stake/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at historian/nn encounters/vbz a/at situation/nn in/in which/wdt he/pps can/md perceive/vb no/at visible/jj cause/nn and/cc effect/nn sequence/nn ,/, he/pps should/md be/be alert/jj to/in intuition/nn and/cc unconscious/jj instinct/nn as/cs possible/jj guides/nns ./.


	Adams/np firmly/rb contended/vbd that/cs the/at historian/nn must/md never/rb underrate/vb the/at impact/nn of/in the/at geographical/jj environment/nn on/in history/nn ./.
Here/rb was/bedz another/dt indispensable/jj tool/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, he/pps concluded/vbd that/cs ``/`` geographical/jj conditions/nns have/hv exercised/vbn a/at great/jj ,/, possibly/rb a/at preponderating/vbg ,/, influence/nn over/in man's/nn$ destiny/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at failure/nn of/in Greece/np to/to reach/vb the/at imperial/jj destiny/nn that/cs Periclean/jj Athens/np had/hvd seemed/vbn to/to promise/vb was/bedz almost/ql directly/rb attributable/jj to/in her/pp$ physical/jj conformation/nn ./.
All/abn areas/nns of/in history/nn were/bed either/cc favorably/rb or/cc adversely/rb affected/vbn by/in the/at geographical/jj environment/nn ,/, and/cc no/at respectable/jj historian/nn could/md pursue/vb the/at study/nn of/in history/nn without/in a/at thorough/jj knowledge/nn of/in geography/nn ./.


	Brooks/np Adams/np was/bedz consistent/jj in/in his/pp$ admonishments/nns to/in historians/nns about/in the/at necessary/jj tools/nns or/cc insights/nns they/ppss needed/vbd to/to possess/vb ./.
However/rb ,/, as/cs a/at practicing/vbg historian/nn ,/, he/pps ,/, himself/ppl ,/, has/hvz left/vbn few/ap clues/nns to/in the/at amount/nn of/in professional/jj scholarship/nn that/wpo he/pps used/vbd when/wrb writing/vbg history/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, if/cs judgments/nns are/ber to/to be/be rendered/vbn upon/in the/at soundness/nn of/in his/pp$ historicism/nn ,/, they/ppss must/md be/be based/vbn on/in scanty/jj evidence/nn ./.
What/wdt evidence/nn is/bez available/jj would/md seem/vb to/to indicate/vb that/cs Brooks/np ,/, unlike/in his/pp$ older/jjr brother/nn Henry/np ,/, had/hvd most/ap of/in the/at methodological/jj vices/nns usually/rb found/vbn in/in the/at amateur/nn ./.
A/at credulousness/nn ,/, a/at distaste/nn for/in documentation/nn ,/, an/at uncritical/jj reliance/nn on/in contemporary/jj accounts/nns ,/, and/cc a/at proneness/nn to/to assume/vb a/at theory/nn as/cs true/jj before/cs adequate/jj proof/nn was/bedz provided/vbn were/bed all/abn evidences/nns of/in his/pp$ failure/nn to/to comprehend/vb the/at use/nn of/in the/at scientific/jj method/nn or/cc to/to evaluate/vb the/at responsibilities/nns of/in the/at historian/nn to/in his/pp$ reading/vbg public/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez not/* to/to assume/vb that/cs his/pp$ work/nn was/bedz without/in merit/nn ,/, but/cc the/at validity/nn of/in his/pp$ assumptions/nns concerning/in the/at meaning/nn of/in history/nn must/md always/rb be/be considered/vbn against/in this/dt background/nn of/in an/at unprofessional/jj approach/nn ./.


	His/pp$ credulity/nn is/bez perhaps/rb best/rbt illustrated/vbn in/in his/pp$ introduction/nn to/in The/at-tl Emancipation/nn-tl Of/in-tl Massachusetts/np-tl ,/, which/wdt purports/vbz to/to examine/vb the/at trials/nns of/in Moses/np and/cc to/to draw/vb a/at parallel/nn between/in the/at leader/nn of/in the/at Israelite/np exodus/nn from/in Egypt/np and/cc the/at leadership/nn of/in the/at Puritan/jj-tl clergy/nn in/in colonial/jj New/jj-tl England/np-tl ./.
Much/ap criticism/nn has/hvz been/ben leveled/vbn at/in this/dt rather/ql forced/vbn analogy/nn ,/, but/cc what/wdt is/bez equally/ql significant/jj is/bez Adams'/np$ complete/jj acceptance/nn of/in the/at Biblical/jj record/nn as/cs ``/`` good/jj and/cc trustworthy/jj history/nn ''/'' ./.
In/in light/nn of/in the/at scholarly/jj reappraisals/nns engendered/vbn by/in the/at higher/jjr criticism/nn this/dt is/bez a/at most/ql remarkable/jj statement/nn ,/, particularly/rb coming/vbg from/in one/pn who/wps was/bedz well/rb known/vbn for/in his/pp$ antifundamentalist/nn views/nns ./.
The/at desire/nn to/to substantiate/vb a/at thesis/nn at/in the/at expense/nn of/in sound/jj research/nn technique/nn smacks/vbz more/ap of/in the/at propagandist/nn than/cs the/at historian/nn ./.


	A/at similar/jj amateurish/jj characteristic/nn is/bez revealed/vbn in/in Adams'/np$ failure/nn to/to check/vb the/at accuracy/nn and/cc authenticity/nn of/in his/pp$ informational/jj sources/nns ./.
If/cs he/pps found/vbd data/nn that/wps fitted/vbd his/pp$ general/jj plan/nn ,/, he/pps used/vbd it/ppo and/cc counted/vbd his/pp$ sources/nns trustworthy/jj ./.
Conversely/rb ,/, if/cs statistics/nns were/bed uncovered/vbn which/wdt contradicted/vbd a/at cherished/vbn theory/nn ,/, the/at sources/nns were/bed denounced/vbn as/cs faulty/jj ./.
Such/jj manipulations/nns are/ber frequently/rb encountered/vbn in/in his/pp$ essay/nn on/in the/at suppression/nn of/in the/at monasteries/nns during/in the/at English/jj reformation/nn ./.
Adams/np depended/vbd largely/rb on/in the/at dispatches/nns of/in foreign/jj ambassadors/nns and/cc observers/nns in/in England/np ,/, claiming/vbg that/cs the/at reports/nns of/in such/jj agents/nns had/hvd to/to be/be accurate/jj because/cs there/ex were/bed no/at newspapers/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez certainly/rb an/at irrational/jj dogmatism/nn ,/, in/in which/wdt the/at modern/jj mind/nn attempts/vbz to/to understand/vb the/at spirit/nn of/in the/at sixteenth/od century/nn on/in twentieth-century/nn terms/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, he/pps rejects/vbz the/at contemporary/jj accounts/nns of/in Englishmen/nps ,/, casually/rb adjudging/vbg them/ppo to/to be/be distorted/vbn by/in prejudice/nn because/cs ``/`` the/at opinions/nns of/in Englishmen/nps are/ber of/in no/at great/jj value/nn ''/'' ./.
What/wdt is/bez exposited/vbn by/in this/dt observation/nn is/bez not/* the/at inherent/jj prejudices/nns of/in Englishmen/nps but/cc the/at Anglophobia/nn of/in Brooks/np Adams/np ./.


	In/in all/abn fairness/nn it/pps must/md be/be admitted/vbn that/cs Adams/np made/vbd no/at pretense/nn at/in being/beg an/at impartial/jj historian/nn ./.
Impartiality/nn to/in him/ppo meant/vbd an/at unwillingness/nn to/to generalize/vb and/cc to/to search/vb for/in a/at synthesis/nn ./.
He/pps deplored/vbd the/at impact/nn of/in German/jj historiography/nn on/in the/at writing/nn of/in history/nn ,/, terming/vbg it/ppo a/at ``/`` dismal/jj monster/nn ''/'' ./.
Ranke/np and/cc his/pp$ disciples/nns had/hvd reduced/vbn history/nn to/in a/at profession/nn of/in dullness/nn ;/. ;/.
Brooks/np Adams/np preferred/vbd the/at chronicles/nns of/in Froissart/np or/cc the/at style/nn and/cc theorizing/nn of/in Edward/np Gibbon/np ,/, for/cs at/in least/ap they/ppss took/vbd a/at stand/nn on/in the/at issues/nns about/in which/wdt they/ppss wrote/vbd ./.
He/pps wrote/vbd eloquently/rb to/in William/np James/np that/cs impartial/jj history/nn was/bedz not/* only/rb impossible/jj but/cc undesirable/jj ./.
If/cs the/at historian/nn was/bedz convinced/vbn of/in his/pp$ own/jj correctness/nn ,/, then/rb he/pps should/md not/* allow/vb his/pp$ vision/nn to/to become/vb fogged/vbn by/in disturbing/jj facts/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz history/nn that/wps must/md be/be in/in error/nn ,/, not/* the/at historian/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz this/dt basic/jj trait/nn that/wps separated/vbd Adams/np from/in the/at ranks/nns of/in professional/jj historians/nns and/cc led/vbd him/ppo to/to commit/vb time/nn and/cc time/nn again/rb what/wdt was/bedz his/pp$ most/ql serious/jj offense/nn against/in the/at historical/jj method/nn --/-- namely/rb ,/, the/at tendency/nn to/to assume/vb the/at truth/nn of/in an/at hypothesis/nn before/cs submitting/vbg it/ppo to/in the/at test/nn of/in facts/nns ./.


	All/abn of/in Adams'/np$ work/nn reflects/vbz this/dt dogmatic/jj characteristic/nn ./.
No/at page/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be complete/jj without/in the/at statement/nn of/in at/in least/ap one/cd unproved/jj generalization/nn ./.
One/cd example/nn of/in this/dt was/bedz his/pp$ assertion/nn that/cs ``/`` all/abn servile/jj revolts/nns must/md be/be dealt/vbn with/in by/in physical/jj force/nn ''/'' ./.
There/ex is/bez no/at explanation/nn of/in terms/nns nor/cc a/at qualification/nn that/cs most/ap such/jj revolts/nns have/hv been/ben dealt/vbn with/in by/in force/nn --/-- only/rb a/at bald/jj dogmatism/nn that/cs they/ppss must/md ,/, because/cs of/in some/dti undefined/jj compulsion/nn ,/, be/be so/rb repelled/vbn ./.
On/in matters/nns of/in race/nn he/pps was/bedz similarly/rb inflexible/jj :/: ``/`` Most/ap of/in the/at modern/jj Latin/jj races/nns seem/vb to/to have/hv inherited/vbn the/at rigidity/nn of/in the/at Roman/jj mind/nn ''/'' ./.
He/pps cites/vbz the/at French/jj-tl Revolution/nn-tl as/cs typifying/vbg this/dt rigidity/nn but/cc makes/vbz no/at mention/nn of/in the/at Italians/nps ,/, who/wps have/hv been/ben able/jj to/to adapt/vb to/in all/abn types/nns of/in circumstances/nns ./.
He/pps pontificates/vbz that/cs ``/`` one/cd of/in the/at first/od signs/nns of/in advancing/vbg civilization/nn is/bez the/at fall/nn in/in the/at value/nn of/in women/nns in/in men's/nns$ eyes/nns ''/'' ./.
It/pps made/vbd no/at difference/nn that/cs most/ap evidence/nn points/vbz to/in an/at opposite/jj conclusion/nn ./.
For/cs Adams/np had/hvd made/vbn up/rp his/pp$ mind/nn before/cs all/abn the/at facts/nns were/bed available/jj ./.


	All/abn critics/nns of/in Adams/np and/cc his/pp$ methods/nns have/hv observed/vbn this/dt particular/jj deficiency/nn ./.
J./np T./np Shotwell/np was/bedz appalled/vbn by/in such/jj spurious/jj history/nn as/cs that/dt which/wdt attributed/vbd the/at fall/nn of/in the/at Carolingian/jj empire/nn to/in the/at woolen/nn trade/nn ,/, and/cc he/pps urged/vbd Adams/np to/to ``/`` transform/vb his/pp$ essay/nn into/in a/at real/jj history/nn ,/, embodying/vbg not/* merely/rb those/dts facts/nns which/wdt fit/vb into/in his/pp$ theory/nn ,/, but/cc also/rb the/at modifications/nns and/cc exceptions/nns ''/'' ./.
A./np M./np Wergeland/np called/vbd the/at Adams/np method/nn literally/rb antihistorical/jj ,/, while/cs Clive/np Day/np maintained/vbd that/cs the/at assumptions/nns were/bed not/* confined/vbn to/in theories/nns alone/rb but/cc were/bed also/rb applicable/jj to/in straight/jj factual/jj evidence/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, stated/vbd Day/np ,/, ``/`` He/pps always/rb omits/vbz facts/nns which/wdt tend/vb to/to disprove/vb his/pp$ hypothesis/nn ''/'' ./.
Even/rb D./np A./np Wasson/np ,/, who/wps compared/vbd The/at-tl Emancipation/nn-tl Of/in-tl Massachusetts/np-tl to/in the/at lifting/nn of/in a/at fog/nn from/in ancient/jj landscapes/nns ,/, was/bedz also/rb forced/vbn to/to admit/vb the/at methodological/jj deficiencies/nns of/in the/at author/nn ./.


	In/in summary/nn ,/, Brooks/np Adams/np felt/vbd that/cs the/at nature/nn of/in history/nn was/bedz order/nn and/cc that/cs the/at order/nn so/rb discovered/vbn was/bedz as/ql much/rb subject/jj to/in historical/jj laws/nns as/cs the/at forces/nns of/in nature/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, he/pps believed/vbd that/cs most/ap professional/jj historians/nns lacked/vbd some/dti of/in the/at essential/jj instruments/nns for/in a/at proper/jj study/nn of/in history/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, despite/in the/at insight/nn of/in many/ap of/in his/pp$ observations/nns ,/, his/pp$ own/jj conclusions/nns are/ber open/jj to/in suspicion/nn because/rb of/in his/pp$ failure/nn to/to employ/vb at/in all/abn times/nns the/at correct/jj research/nn methods/nns ./.
This/dt should/md not/* prejudice/vb an/at evaluation/nn of/in his/pp$ findings/nns ,/, but/cc they/ppss were/bed not/* the/at findings/nns of/in a/at completely/ql impartial/jj investigator/nn ./.
What/wdt was/bedz perhaps/rb more/ql important/jj than/cs his/pp$ concept/nn of/in the/at nature/nn of/in history/nn and/cc the/at historical/jj method/nn were/bed those/dts forces/nns which/wdt shaped/vbd the/at direction/nn of/in his/pp$ thought/nn ./.
In/in the/at final/jj analysis/nn his/pp$ contribution/nn to/in American/jj historiography/nn was/bedz founded/vbn on/in almost/ql intuitive/jj insights/nns into/in religion/nn ,/, economics/nn ,/, and/cc Darwinism/np ,/, the/at three/cd factors/nns which/wdt conditioned/vbd his/pp$ search/nn for/in a/at law/nn of/in history/nn ./.



Religion/nn without/in supernaturalism/nn 
Brooks/np Adams/np considered/vbd religion/nn as/cs an/at extremely/ql significant/jj manifestation/nn of/in man's/nn$ fear/nn of/in the/at unknown/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps was/bedz nothing/pn more/ap than/cs that/dt ./.
Religion/nn and/cc the/at churches/nns were/bed institutions/nns which/wdt had/hvd been/ben created/vbn by/in man/nn ,/, not/* God/np ./.
He/pps did/dod not/* deny/vb God/np ;/. ;/.
he/pps simply/rb did/dod not/* believe/vb that/cs a/at Creator/nn-tl intervened/vbd or/cc interfered/vbd in/in human/jj affairs/nns ./.
The/at historian/nn need/vb not/* be/be concerned/vbn with/in the/at philosophical/jj problems/nns suggested/vbn by/in religion/nn ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at evidence/nn ,/, either/cc of/in a/at positive/jj or/cc negative/jj type/nn ,/, of/in the/at actions/nns of/in a/at Divine/jj-tl Being/nn-tl in/in this/dt world/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc ,/, since/cs the/at historian/nn should/md only/rb be/be interested/vbn in/in strictly/ql terrestrial/jj activity/nn ,/, his/pp$ research/nn should/md eliminate/vb the/at supernatural/nn ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, he/pps must/md regard/vb religion/nn as/cs the/at expression/nn of/in human/jj forces/nns ./.
Certainly/rb ,/, he/pps must/md recognize/vb its/pp$ power/nn and/cc attempt/vb to/to ascertain/vb its/pp$ influence/nn on/in the/at flow/nn of/in history/nn ,/, but/cc he/pps must/md not/* confuse/vb the/at natural/jj and/cc the/at mundane/jj with/in the/at divine/nn ./.


	Adams/np was/bedz not/* breaking/vbg new/jj ground/nn when/wrb he/pps claimed/vbd that/cs the/at worship/nn of/in an/at unseen/jj power/nn was/bedz in/in reality/nn a/at reflection/nn of/in man's/nn$ inability/nn to/to cope/vb with/in his/pp$ environment/nn ./.
Students/nns of/in anthropology/nn and/cc comparative/jj religion/nn had/hvd long/rb been/ben aware/jj that/cs there/ex was/bedz ,/, indeed/rb ,/, a/at direct/jj connection/nn ./.
But/cc Adams/np was/bedz one/cd of/in the/at first/od to/to suggest/vb that/cs this/dt human/jj incompetence/nn was/bedz the/at only/ap motivating/vbg factor/nn behind/in religion/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz this/dt fear/nn which/wdt explained/vbd the/at development/nn of/in a/at priestly/jj caste/nn whose/wp$ function/nn in/in society/nn was/bedz to/to mollify/vb and/cc appease/vb the/at angry/jj deities/nns ./.
To/to keep/vb themselves/ppls entrenched/vbn in/in power/nn ,/, the/at priests/nns were/bed forced/vbn to/to demonstrate/vb their/pp$ unique/jj status/nn through/in the/at miracle/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz the/at use/nn of/in the/at supernatural/nn that/wps kept/vbd them/ppo in/in business/nn ./.
The/at German/jj barbarians/nns of/in the/at fourth/od century/nn offered/vbd an/at excellent/jj example/nn :/: 

	``/`` The/at Germans/nps in/in the/at fourth/od century/nn were/bed a/at very/ql simple/jj race/nn ,/, who/wps comprehended/vbd little/ap of/in natural/jj laws/nns ,/, and/cc who/wps therefore/rb referred/vbd phenomena/nns they/ppss did/dod not/* understand/vb to/in supernatural/jj intervention/nn ./.
This/dt intervention/nn could/md only/rb be/be controlled/vbn by/in priests/nns ,/, and/cc thus/rb the/at invasions/nns caused/vbd a/at rapid/jj rise/nn in/in the/at influence/nn of/in the/at sacred/jj class/nn ./.
The/at power/nn of/in every/at ecclesiastical/jj organization/nn has/hvz always/rb rested/vbn on/in the/at miracle/nn ,/, and/cc the/at clergy/nns have/hv always/rb proved/vbn their/pp$ divine/jj commission/nn as/cs did/dod Elijah/np ''/'' ./.


	Adams/np contended/vbd that/cs once/cs such/abl a/at special/jj class/nn had/hvd been/ben created/vbn it/pps became/vbd a/at vested/vbn interest/nn and/cc sought/vbd to/to maintain/vb itself/ppl by/in assuming/vbg exclusive/jj control/nn over/in the/at relationships/nns between/in God/np and/cc man/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at Church/nn-tl was/bedz born/vbn and/cc because/rb of/in its/pp$ intrinsic/jj character/nn was/bedz soon/rb identified/vbn as/cs a/at conservative/jj institution/nn ,/, determined/vbn to/to resist/vb the/at forces/nns of/in change/nn ,/, to/to identify/vb itself/ppl with/in the/at political/jj rulers/nns ,/, and/cc to/to maintain/vb a/at kind/nn of/in splendid/jj isolation/nn from/in the/at masses/nns ./.
Doctrine/nn was/bedz not/* only/rb mysterious/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps was/bedz also/rb sacred/jj ,/, ``/`` and/cc no/at believer/nn in/in an/at inspired/vbn church/nn could/md tolerate/vb having/hvg her/pp$ canons/nns examined/vbn as/cs we/ppss should/md examine/vb human/jj laws/nns ''/'' ./.
These/dts basic/jj ideas/nns concerning/in the/at nature/nn of/in religion/nn were/bed ,/, Adams/np believed/vbd ,/, some/dti of/in the/at major/jj keys/nns to/in the/at understanding/nn of/in history/nn and/cc the/at movement/nn of/in society/nn ./.
The/at dark/jj views/nns about/in the/at Puritans/nps found/vbn in/in The/at-tl Emancipation/nn-tl Of/in-tl Massachusetts/np-tl were/bed never/rb altered/vbn ./.


	Despite/in their/pp$ adherence/nn to/in the/at status/nn quo/fw-wdt ,/, the/at forces/nns of/in organized/vbn religion/nn were/bed compelled/vbn to/to make/vb adjustments/nns as/cs increasing/vbg civilization/nn augmented/vbd human/jj knowledge/nn ./.
In/in The/at-tl Law/nn-tl Of/in-tl Civilization/nn-tl And/cc-tl Decay/nn-tl Brooks/np Adams/np traced/vbd this/dt evolution/nn ,/, always/rb pointing/vbg to/in the/at fact/nn that/cs although/cs the/at forms/nns became/vbd more/ql rational/jj ,/, the/at substance/nn remained/vbd unchanged/jj ./.
The/at relic/nn worship/nn and/cc monasticism/nn of/in the/at Middle/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl were/bed more/ql advanced/vbn forms/nns than/cs were/bed primitive/jj fetish/nn worship/nn and/cc nature/nn myths/nns ./.
Yet/rb ,/, the/at idea/nn imbedded/vbn in/in each/dt was/bedz identical/jj :/: to/to surround/vb the/at unknown/nn with/in mystery/nn and/cc to/to isolate/vb that/dt class/nn which/wdt had/hvd been/ben given/vbn special/jj dominion/nn over/in the/at secrets/nns of/in God/np ./.
To/in Adams/np that/dt age/nn in/in which/wdt religion/nn exercised/vbd power/nn over/in the/at entire/jj culture/nn of/in the/at race/nn was/bedz one/cd of/in imagination/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez largely/rb the/at admiration/nn he/pps so/ql obviously/rb held/vbd for/in such/jj eras/nns that/wps betrays/vbz a/at peculiar/jj religiosity/nn --/-- a/at sentiment/nn he/pps would/md have/hv probably/rb denied/vbn ./.

